Primary brain tumors, including craniopharyngiomas, are a diverse group of diseases that together constitute the most common solid tumors of childhood. Brain tumors are classified according to an integrated assessment of histology and molecular characteristics, with tumor location and extent of spread as important factors that affect treatment and prognosis.
Craniopharyngiomas are uncommon pediatric brain tumors. They are believed to be congenital in origin, arising from ectodermal remnants, Rathke cleft, or other embryonal epithelium. They often occur in the suprasellar region with an intrasellar portion. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) imaging are used to diagnose craniopharyngiomas, but histological confirmation is generally required before treatment.
The treatment of patients with newly diagnosed craniopharyngiomas may include surgery, radiation therapy, cyst drainage, and intracystic therapies. The treatment of patients with recurrent craniopharyngiomas depends on the initial treatment used. With current treatment strategies, the 5-year and 10-year survival rates reach 80% to 90% for children between the ages of 0 and 14 years.[1]
The PDQ childhood brain tumor treatment summaries are organized primarily according to the World Health Organization Classification of Central Nervous System (CNS) Tumours.[2,3] For a full description of the classification of CNS tumors and a link to the corresponding treatment summary for each type of brain tumor, see Childhood Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors Summary Index.
Craniopharyngiomas are relatively uncommon, accounting for about 3% of all intracranial tumors in children.[1,4,5]
No predisposing factors have been identified.
Craniopharyngiomas occur in the suprasellar region, near the pituitary gland, optic nerves, and optic chiasm (see Figure 2). This proximity commonly leads to injury of these surrounding structures, both by the tumor and interventions used to treat the tumor. Endocrine function is most frequently affected,[6-11] with patients suffering from neuroendocrine deficits such as growth hormone, thyroid, and cortisol deficiencies. Additionally, tumor proximity to the optic nerves and chiasm may result in visual compromise.[12][Level of evidence C1]; [7,13-15] Some patients present with obstructive hydrocephalus caused by tumor growth within the third ventricle. Rarely, tumors may extend into the posterior fossa, and patients may present with headache, diplopia, ataxia, and hearing loss.[16]
CT and MRI scans are often diagnostic for childhood craniopharyngiomas, with most tumors demonstrating intratumoral calcifications and a solid and cystic component. MRI of the spinal axis is not routinely performed.
Craniopharyngiomas without calcification may be confused with other tumor types, including germ cell tumors, hypothalamic/chiasmatic astrocytomas, or Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Biopsy or resection is required to confirm the diagnosis.[17]
Apart from imaging, patients undergo endocrine testing and formal vision examination, including visual-field evaluation.
Regardless of the treatment modality, the 5-year and 10-year overall survival rates range from 80% to 90% in children between the ages of 0 and 14 years.[1,18-21] The event-free survival (EFS) rates can be more variable, depending on therapy and clinical characteristics of the patient and tumor. EFS rates range from 23% for younger children to 65% for school-aged children.[22,23]
Craniopharyngiomas are histologically benign and often occur in the suprasellar region, with an intrasellar portion. They may be locally invasive and typically do not metastasize to remote brain locations.
Craniopharyngiomas are classified under the category of tumors of the sella region according to the defined entities below. The two entities were previously described as subtypes of craniopharyngioma. However, based on the different populations they tend to affect, combined with distinct clinical, histological, and molecular characteristics, these are now considered unique diagnoses.[1]
There is no generally applied staging system for childhood craniopharyngiomas. For treatment purposes, patients are grouped as having newly diagnosed or recurrent disease.
Treatments for pediatric craniopharyngiomas have traditionally included maximal safe surgical resection and radiation therapy to treat residual tumor. Additionally, intracystic therapies such as radioactive phosphorus P 32, bleomycin, and interferon-alpha have been used. Evidence has demonstrated that conservative surgical approaches lead to better neuroendocrine and quality-of-life outcomes in patients.[1,2] Additionally, as the biological understanding of molecular and inflammatory drivers of these tumors have been identified, targeted therapies are now being studied.
Table 1 describes the treatment options for newly diagnosed and recurrent childhood craniopharyngioma.
Treatment Group | Treatment Options |
---|---|
Newly diagnosed childhood craniopharyngioma | Complete resection with or without radiation therapy |
Subtotal resection with radiation therapy | |
Primary cyst drainage with or without radiation therapy | |
Intracystic therapy | |
Progressive or recurrent childhood craniopharyngioma | Surgery |
Radiation therapy, including radiosurgery | |
Intracystic therapy (intracavitary instillation of radioactive phosphorus P 32 or bleomycin for those with cystic recurrences, where these agents are available) | |
Systemic and targeted therapy | |
Observation |
There is no consensus on the optimal treatment for patients with newly diagnosed craniopharyngioma, in part because of the lack of prospective randomized trials that compare the different treatment options. Treatment is individualized on the basis of the following factors:
Established treatment options for newly diagnosed childhood craniopharyngioma include the following:
It may be possible to remove all visible tumor and achieve long-term disease control.[2-4][Level of evidence C1] A 5-year progression-free survival (PFS) rate of about 65% has been reported.[5] Reported recurrence rates range from less than 10% to nearly 50%.[6,7] Gross-total resection is often technically challenging because the tumor is surrounded by vital structures, including the optic nerves and chiasm, the carotid artery and its branches, the pituitary and hypothalamus, and the third cranial nerve. These structures may limit the ability to remove the entire tumor. Conservative surgical approaches are often used to preserve functional and quality-of-life outcomes.[8,9][Level of evidence C1]
Many surgical approaches have been described, and the choice is determined by tumor size, location, extension, and the patient's baseline signs and symptoms of disease. Surgical approaches include the following:
Complications of complete resection using either approach include the following:
If the surgeon indicates that the tumor was not completely removed or if postoperative imaging reveals residual craniopharyngioma, radiation therapy may be recommended to prevent early progression.[19][Level of evidence C2] For more information, see the Subtotal Resection With Radiation Therapy section.
Routine surveillance using magnetic resonance imaging is performed for several years after complete resection because of the possibility of tumor recurrence.
The goal of limited surgery can be to establish a diagnosis, drain cystic components of the tumor, and decompress surrounding anatomical structures. In subtotal resections, removal of the tumor from the pituitary stalk or hypothalamus is typically avoided to minimize the late effects associated with complete resection.[20]
Surgery is often followed by radiation therapy, because radiation therapy can decrease the risk of recurrence after a subtotal resection.[21] With this approach, the 5-year PFS rates are approximately 70% to 90%,[5,22-25]; [26][Level of evidence C1] and the 10-year overall survival (OS) rates exceed 90%, which are similar to the rates in patients who undergo a gross-total resection.[27,28][Level of evidence C1]; [29][Level of evidence C2] Most often, radiation therapy is timed to immediately follow subtotal resection. However, in certain cases, such as in young patients or in patients without existing neuroendocrine or visual deficits, serial imaging may be used to delay or avoid radiation therapy for as long as feasible.[7,30] The standard approach to radiation therapy involves fractionated external-beam radiation, with a recommended dose of 50 to 54 Gy, in 1.8-Gy fractions, restricting the optic chiasm dose to 54 Gy.[31-34] Newer radiation technologies such as intensity-modulated photon therapy and proton-beam radiation therapy may reduce the radiation dose to uninvolved parts of the brain and spare normal tissue.[23,34-36] It is unknown whether such techniques reduce the late effects of radiation therapy.[26,34,36,37] Transient cyst enlargement may be noted during radiation therapy, and serial imaging may be required during radiation therapy to assess cyst changes and consider updates to radiation mapping.[38][Level of evidence C3]
Surgical complications with a subtotal resection can be similar to, but are less likely than, with a complete resection. If radiation therapy is used, additional complications must be considered, including the following:
A phase II single-arm study included 94 patients (aged 12 months to 21 years) with craniopharyngiomas who were treated with proton-beam radiation therapy after individualized surgical resection. These patients were compared with a historical cohort of patients who were treated with photon-beam radiation therapy.[41] The survival outcomes of patients who received proton therapy were similar to those of patients who received photon therapy. The cumulative incidence rates of necrosis, vasculopathy, changes in vision, and severe complications were also similar between the two groups of patients. However, patients treated with proton therapy in the more recent cohort had superior cognitive outcomes.
A long-term study of 101 children who were treated for craniopharyngiomas evaluated visual, neurocognitive, and endocrine outcomes after photon radiation therapy. Race and presence of a shunt affected baseline scores.[42] For children who presented with lower intelligence quotient (IQ) scores at diagnosis, the impact of treatment often resulted in an IQ score reduction to the borderline mental disability range of 70 to 84. The investigators demonstrated that age at treatment (younger children had worse outcomes), radiation dose to the temporal lobes and hippocampi, and visual impairment significantly impacted neurocognitive function after radiation therapy. This study demonstrates the importance of these factors in the treatment and late effects of craniopharyngioma.
A report from the prospective registry study KiProReg examined the use of proton-beam therapy in 84 children younger than 18 years with craniopharyngioma.[43] The estimated 3-year OS rate was 98.2%, and the PFS rate was 94.7%. With a median follow-up of 4.3 years, late toxicities appeared acceptable. Sixty-three of the patients were treated with pencil-beam scanning, which is considered an advancement in proton technology.
For predominantly cystic craniopharyngiomas, stereotactic drainage of the cyst, insertion of a catheter from which drainage can be facilitated, or cyst fenestration are other therapeutic alternatives.[7,44] This can be followed by observation or radiation therapy, depending on clinical and tumor characteristics . This procedure may also allow the surgeon to use the following two-staged approach:[45]
Intracystic therapies include peginterferon alpha, radioactive phosphorus P 32 (32P) or other compounds,[46-48]; [49][Level of evidence B4] and interferon-alpha (which is no longer commercially available).[50]; [51][Level of evidence C1]; [52][Level of evidence C2] Bleomycin has previously been used.[53]; [54][Level of evidence C2]
A systematic review of publications on the treatment of cystic craniopharyngiomas with radioisotope brachytherapy from 2010 to 2021 identified 66 pediatric patients (N = 228).[55] With a minimum follow-up of 5 years, partial and complete responses were achieved in 89% of children with purely cystic lesions, compared with 58% of children with nonexclusively cystic lesions. Visual improvement was achieved in 64% of the patients with purely cystic lesions, and endocrine improvement was achieved in 20% of these patients. The observed progression rate was 3% for patients with purely cystic lesions. Treatment with intracystic brachytherapy, most commonly using 32P and yttrium Y 90, can be considered for patients with purely cystic craniopharyngiomas.
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
Preclinical contemporary evaluations have identified active molecular and immune pathways in craniopharyngioma that may be targetable using commercially available or investigational agents. Specifically, MAPK and RAF pathways and immune/inflammatory targets such as PD-1 pathway components and IL-6 have been identified.[7,56-61][Level of evidence C1]
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
Progression or recurrence of craniopharyngioma varies according to the type of up-front therapy, but it has been reported to be between 20% (patients who received a subtotal resection and radiation therapy) and 90% (patients who received a subtotal resection without radiation therapy).[1-3]
Treatment options for recurrent childhood craniopharyngioma include the following:
The management of recurrent craniopharyngioma is determined largely by previous therapy. Repeat attempts at gross-total resections are difficult, and long-term disease control is achieved less often.[4][Level of evidence C2]; [3] Complications are more frequent than with initial surgery.[5][Level of evidence C2]
If not previously employed, external-beam radiation therapy remains an option, including the consideration of radiosurgery in selected circumstances.[6][Level of evidence C2] Repeat irradiation in different forms is also an option when considering prior radiation exposures and toxicities. Reirradiation has been shown to be feasible in regaining tumor control and providing symptom relief.[7][Level of evidence C3] The types of radiation therapy can range from standard conformal radiation approaches to Gamma Knife therapy.[8][Level of evidence C3]
Cystic recurrences may be treated with intracavitary instillation of varying agents via placement of an Ommaya catheter.[9] These agents have included radioactive 32P or other compounds,[10-12]; [13][Level of evidence B4] bleomycin,[14]; [15][Level of evidence C2] or, previously, interferon-alpha (which is no longer commercially available).[16]; [17][Level of evidence C1]; [18][Level of evidence C2] These strategies have been useful in certain cases, and a low risk of complications has been reported. However, none of these approaches has shown efficacy against solid portions of the tumor.
Although systemic therapy is generally not used, a small series has shown that the use of subcutaneous peginterferon alpha-2b to manage cystic recurrences can result in durable responses; however, this agent is no longer commercially available.[19][Level of evidence C2]
In select cases of asymptomatic patients with minimal (<25%) tumor progression, it may be possible to safely observe these patients. Intervention can begin when new symptoms develop or further tumor growth is identified on subsequent imaging.[20]
Information about NCI-supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, see the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
Preclinical contemporary evaluations have identified active molecular and immune pathways in craniopharyngioma that may be targetable using commercially available or investigational agents. Specifically, MAPK and RAF pathways and immune/inflammatory targets such as PD-1 pathway components and IL-6 have been identified.[21-27][Level of evidence C1]
The following are examples of national and/or institutional clinical trials that are currently being conducted:
Quality-of-life issues are important to pediatric patients with craniopharyngiomas and are difficult to generalize because of the various treatment modalities. In one series of 261 patients diagnosed with craniopharyngiomas before 2000, hypothalamic involvement was associated with lower overall survival (OS), impaired quality of life, and severe obesity.[1][Level of evidence C1] Other studies investigating quality of life in large, multi-institutional cohorts have correlated worse quality-of-life outcomes with variables such as older age at diagnosis, hypothalamic involvement, degree of postoperative hypothalamic injury, and degree of tumor resection.[2,3] Regardless of therapy, most patients with craniopharyngiomas experience long-term effects from the tumor and associated therapies.[2-6][Level of evidence B3]
Late effects of treatment for childhood craniopharyngioma include the following:
For information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors, see Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer.
The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.
Treatment of Newly Diagnosed Childhood Craniopharyngioma
Added text to state that a report from the prospective registry study KiProReg examined the use of proton-beam therapy in 84 children younger than 18 years with craniopharyngioma. The estimated 3-year overall survival rate was 98.2%, and the progression-free survival rate was 94.7%. With a median follow-up of 4.3 years, late toxicities appeared acceptable. Sixty-three of the patients were treated with pencil-beam scanning, which is considered an advancement in proton technology (cited Bischoff et al. as reference 43).
Late Effects in Patients Treated for Childhood Craniopharyngioma
Added Nguyen Quoc et al. as reference 20.
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This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of childhood craniopharyngioma. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians in the care of their patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.
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PDQ® Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Childhood Craniopharyngioma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/hp/child-cranio-treatment-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389330]
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