Cancer treatments may harm the body's organs, tissues, or bones and cause health problems later in life. These health problems are called late effects.
Treatments that may cause late effects include the following:
Doctors are studying the late effects caused by cancer treatment. They are working to improve cancer treatments and stop or lessen late effects. While most late effects are not life-threatening, they may cause serious problems that affect health and quality of life.
Late effects in childhood cancer survivors may affect the following:
Many childhood cancer survivors will have late effects. The risk of late effects depends on factors related to the tumor, treatment, and patient. These include the following:
New treatments for childhood cancer have decreased the number of deaths from the primary cancer. Because childhood cancer survivors are living longer, they are having more late effects after cancer treatment. Survivors may not live as long as people who did not have cancer. The most common causes of death in childhood cancer survivors are:
Studies of the causes of late effects have led to changes in treatment. This has improved the quality of life for cancer survivors and helps prevent illness and death from late effects.
Regular follow-up by health professionals who are trained to find and treat late effects is important for the long-term health of childhood cancer survivors. Follow-up care will be different for each person who has been treated for cancer. The type of care will depend on the type of cancer, the type of treatment, genetic factors, other medical conditions, and the person's general health and health habits. Follow-up care includes checking for signs and symptoms of late effects and health education on how to prevent or lessen late effects.
It is important that childhood cancer survivors have an exam at least once a year. The exams should be done by a health professional who knows the survivor's risk for late effects and can recognize the early signs of late effects. Blood and imaging tests may also be done.
Long-term follow-up may improve the health and quality of life for cancer survivors. It also helps doctors study the late effects of cancer treatments so that safer therapies for newly diagnosed children may be developed.
The quality of life for cancer survivors may be improved by behaviors that promote health and well-being. These include a healthy diet, exercise, and regular medical and dental checkups. These self-care behaviors are especially important for cancer survivors because of their risk of health problems related to treatment. Healthy behaviors may make late effects less severe and lower the risk of other diseases.
Avoiding behaviors that are damaging to health is also important. Smoking, excess alcohol use, illegal drug use, being exposed to sunlight, or not being physically active may worsen organ damage related to treatment and may increase the risk of second cancers.
A different primary cancer that occurs at least two months after cancer treatment ends is called a second cancer. A second cancer may occur months or years after treatment is completed. The type of second cancer that occurs depends in part on the original type of cancer and the cancer treatment. Benign tumors (not cancer) may also occur.
Second cancers that occur after cancer treatment include the following:
Myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia may appear less than 10 years after a primary cancer diagnosis of Hodgkin lymphoma, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, sarcoma, central nervous system (CNS) tumor, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, neuroblastoma, or Wilms tumor and treatment with chemotherapy that included the following:
Patients treated with radiation to the bone marrow without chemotherapy may also have an increased risk of second acute myeloid leukemia.
Solid tumors that may appear more than 10 years after a primary cancer diagnosis and treatment include the following:
The treatment of cancer that has spread to the chest or lung with chest radiation in the area of the breast may also increase the risk of breast cancer.
There is also an increased risk of breast cancer in patients who were treated with alkylating agents and anthracyclines but not with chest radiation. The risk is highest in sarcoma and leukemia survivors.
Chemotherapy with anthracyclines or alkylating agents also increases the risk of bone and soft tissue tumors, with risk increasing at higher doses.
Treatment with chemotherapy alone or chemotherapy and radiation treatment combined also increases the risk of stomach, liver, or colorectal cancer.
Some childhood cancer survivors may have an increased risk of developing a second cancer because they have a family history of cancer, an inherited cancer syndrome such as Li-Fraumeni syndrome, or a genetic mutation such as neurofibromatosis type 1. Problems with the way DNA is repaired in cells and the way anticancer drugs are used by the body may also affect the risk of second cancers.
It is important for patients who have been treated for cancer to be checked for a second cancer before symptoms appear. This is called screening and may help find a second cancer at an early stage. When abnormal tissue or cancer is found early, it may be easier to treat. By the time symptoms appear, cancer may have begun to spread.
It is important to remember that your child's doctor does not necessarily think your child has cancer if he or she suggests a screening test. Screening tests are given when your child has no cancer symptoms. If a screening test result is abnormal, your child may need to have more tests done to find out if he or she has a second cancer. These are called diagnostic tests.
All patients who have been treated for cancer should have a physical exam and medical history done once a year. A physical exam of the body is done to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps, changes in the skin, or anything else that seems unusual. A medical history is taken to learn about the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments.
If the patient received radiation therapy, the following tests and procedures may be used to check for skin, breast, or colorectal cancer:
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause heart and blood vessel late effects:
The risk of health problems involving the heart and blood vessels increases after treatment with the following:
Childhood cancer survivors who were treated with radiation therapy to the heart or blood vessels and certain types of chemotherapy are at greatest risk.
New treatments that decrease the amount of radiation given and use lower doses of chemotherapy or less harmful chemotherapy drugs may lessen the risk of heart and blood vessel late effects compared with older treatments.
The following may also increase the risk of heart and blood vessel late effects:
Childhood cancer survivors who received radiation or certain types of chemotherapy have an increased risk of late effects to the heart and blood vessels and related health problems. These include the following:
Long-term survivors of childhood, adolescent, and young adult cancers who have received radiation therapy or certain types of chemotherapy are at risk of a rare type of heart failure during pregnancy called peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM). It may occur during late pregnancy and up to 5 months after giving birth. Patients at risk of this condition should be closely followed for weakness of the heart muscle during pregnancy.
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by heart and blood vessel late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child's personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child's doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of heart and blood vessel late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Childhood cancer survivors may lower their risk of heart and blood vessel late effects by having a healthy lifestyle, which includes:
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause brain and spinal cord late effects:
The risk of health problems that affect the brain or spinal cord increases after treatment with the following:
When radiation to the brain and intrathecal chemotherapy are given at the same time, the risk of late effects is higher.
The following may also increase the risk of brain and spinal cord late effects in childhood brain tumor survivors:
Central nervous system late effects are also affected by where the tumor has formed in the brain and spinal cord.
Childhood cancer survivors who received radiation, certain types of chemotherapy, or surgery to the brain or spinal cord have an increased risk of late effects to the brain and spinal cord and related health problems. These include the following:
Survivors may also have late effects that affect thinking, learning, memory, emotions, and behavior.
New ways of using more targeted and lower doses of radiation to the brain may lessen the risk of brain and spinal cord late effects.
These signs and symptoms may be caused by brain and spinal cord late effects or by other conditions:
Other signs and symptoms include the following:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child's personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child's doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of brain and spinal cord late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Survivors of childhood cancer may have anxiety and depression related to physical changes, having pain, the way they look, or the fear of cancer coming back. These and other factors may cause problems with personal relationships, education, employment, and health, and cause thoughts of suicide. Survivors with these problems may be less likely to live on their own as adults.
Follow-up exams for childhood cancer survivors should include screening and treatment for possible psychological distress, such as anxiety, depression, and thoughts of suicide.
For more information about psychological distress and coping skills for cancer patients, see the following PDQ summaries:
Being diagnosed and treated for a life-threatening disease may be traumatic. This trauma may cause post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is defined as having certain behaviors following a stressful event that involved death or the threat of death, serious injury, or a threat to oneself or others.
PTSD can affect cancer survivors in the following ways:
In general, childhood cancer survivors show low levels of PTSD, depending in part on the coping style of patients and their parents. Survivors who received radiation therapy to the head when younger than 4 years or survivors who received intensive treatment may be at higher risk of PTSD. Family problems, little or no social support from family or friends, and stress not related to the cancer may increase the chances of having PTSD.
Because avoiding places and persons connected to the cancer may be part of PTSD, survivors with PTSD may not get the medical treatment they need.
Adolescents who are diagnosed with cancer may reach fewer social milestones or reach them later in life than adolescents not diagnosed with cancer. Social milestones include having a first boyfriend or girlfriend, getting married, and having a child. They may also have trouble getting along with other people or feel like they are not liked by others their age.
Cancer survivors in this age group have reported being less satisfied with their health and their lives in general compared with others of the same age who did not have cancer. Adolescents and young adults who survived cancer need special programs that give psychological, educational, and job support.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause the late effect of problems with teeth and jaws:
The risk of health problems that affect the teeth and jaws increases after treatment with the following:
Risk is also increased in survivors who were younger than 5 years at the time of treatment because their permanent teeth had not fully formed.
Teeth and jaws late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by late effects of the teeth and jaws or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child's personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child's doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of teeth and jaw late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Doctors suggest that survivors of childhood cancer have a dental check-up and a cleaning and fluoride treatment every 6 months. Children who had radiation therapy to the oral cavity may also see an orthodontist or an otolaryngologist. If lesions are present in the mouth, a biopsy may be needed.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause late effects of the digestive tract (esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus):
The risk of health problems that affect the digestive tract increases after treatment with the following:
The following may also increase the risk of digestive tract late effects:
Digestive tract late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by digestive tract late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child's personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child's doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of digestive tract late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause liver or bile duct late effects:
The risk of liver or bile duct late effects may be increased in childhood cancer survivors treated with one of the following:
The following may also increase the risk of liver and bile duct late effects:
Liver and bile duct late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by liver and bile duct late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
Sometimes there are no signs or symptoms of liver or bile duct late effects and treatment may not be needed.
In addition to asking about your child's personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child's doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
This test is used to check the amount of platelets in the body.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of liver or bile duct late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Childhood cancer survivors with liver late effects should take care to protect their health, including:
The risk of pancreatic late effects may be increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with one of the following:
Pancreatic late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by pancreatic late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause thyroid late effects:
The risk of thyroid late effects may be increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with any of the following:
The risk also is increased in females, in survivors who were a young age at the time of treatment, in survivors who had a higher radiation dose, and as the time since diagnosis and treatment gets longer.
Thyroid late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by thyroid late effects or by other conditions:
Hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone)
Rarely, hypothyroidism does not cause any symptoms.
Hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone)
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of thyroid late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
The neuroendocrine system is the nervous system and the endocrine system working together.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause neuroendocrine late effects:
Childhood cancer survivors have an increased risk for neuroendocrine late effects. These effects are caused by radiation therapy to the brain in the area of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the way hormones are made and released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland. Radiation therapy may be given to treat cancer near the hypothalamus or as total-body irradiation before a stem cell transplant. These effects are also caused by surgery in the area of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, or optic pathways.
Childhood cancer survivors who have neuroendocrine late effects may have low levels of any of the following hormones made in the pituitary gland and released into the blood:
Neuroendocrine late effects and related health problems include the following:
A low level of growth hormone in childhood results in adult height that is shorter than normal. If the child's bones have not fully developed, low growth hormone levels may be treated with growth hormone replacement therapy beginning one year after the end of treatment.
Symptoms of deficiency may not be severe and may not be noticed. Signs and symptoms of adrenocorticotropin deficiency include the following:
Low levels of adrenocorticotropin may be treated with hydrocortisone therapy.
Sometimes there are no signs and symptoms. Treatment is rarely needed.
Sometimes the symptoms of thyroid-stimulating hormone deficiency are not noticed. Low thyroid hormone levels may cause slow growth and delayed puberty, as well as other symptoms. A low level of thyroid hormone may be treated with thyroid hormone replacement therapy.
Childhood cancer survivors who were treated with lower doses of radiation to the brain may develop central precocious puberty (a condition that causes puberty to start before age 8 in girls and 9 in boys). This condition may be treated with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist therapy to delay puberty and help the child's growth. Hydrocephalus may also increase the risk of this late effect.
Childhood cancer survivors who were treated with higher doses of radiation to the brain may have low levels of luteinizing hormone or follicle-stimulating hormone. This condition may be treated with sex hormone replacement therapy. The dose will depend on the child's age and whether the child has reached puberty.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of neuroendocrine late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
For information about late effects in the testicles and ovaries, see the Reproductive System section.
Metabolic syndrome is a group of medical conditions that includes having too much fat around the abdomen and at least two of the following:
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause metabolic syndrome to occur later in life:
The risk of metabolic syndrome may be increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with any of the following:
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of metabolic syndrome. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Metabolic syndrome is linked to an increased risk of heart and blood vessel disease and diabetes. Health habits that decrease these risks include:
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause a change in weight:
Graft-versus-host disease may also cause a change in weight for patients treated with a stem cell transplant.
The risk of being underweight increases after treatment with the following:
The risk of being overweight or having obesity increases after treatment with the following:
The following may also increase the risk of obesity:
Childhood cancer survivors who get enough exercise and have a normal amount of anxiety have a lower risk of obesity.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Being underweight, being overweight, or having obesity may be measured by weight, body mass index, percent of body fat, or size of the abdomen (belly fat).
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of a change in weight. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
The risk of health problems that affect the immune system increases after treatment with the following:
Late effects that affect the immune system may increase the risk of very serious bacterial infections. This risk is higher in younger children than in older children and may be greater in the early years after the spleen stops working or is removed by surgery. These signs and symptoms may be caused by infection:
An infection may cause other symptoms that depend on the part of the body affected. For example, a lung infection may cause a cough and trouble breathing.
Daily antibiotics may be prescribed for children younger than 5 whose spleen is no longer working or for at least 1 year after surgery to remove the spleen. For certain high-risk patients, daily antibiotics may be prescribed throughout childhood and into adulthood.
In addition, children with an increased risk of infection should be vaccinated on a schedule through adolescence against the following:
Talk to your child's doctor about whether other childhood vaccinations given before cancer treatment need to be repeated.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause bone and joint late effects:
Poor nutrition and not enough exercise may also cause bone late effects.
Radiation therapy can stop or slow the growth of bone and muscle. The type of bone and joint late effect depends on the part of the body that received radiation therapy. Radiation therapy may cause any of the following:
Amputation or limb-sparing surgery to remove the cancer and prevent it from coming back may cause late effects depending on where the tumor was, age of the patient, and type of surgery. Health problems after amputation or limb-sparing surgery may include:
Studies show no difference in quality of life in childhood cancer survivors who had amputation compared to those who had limb-sparing surgery.
Risk may be increased in childhood cancer survivors who receive anticancer therapy that includes methotrexate or corticosteroids or glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone. Drug therapy may cause any of the following:
A stem cell transplant can affect the bone and joints in different ways:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by bone and joint late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of bone and joint late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause testicular late effects:
The risk of health problems that affect the testicles increases after treatment with one or more of the following:
Late effects of the testicles and related health problems include the following:
After treatment with chemotherapy or radiation, the body’s ability to make sperm may come back over time.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following test.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause ovarian late effects:
The risk of ovarian late effects may be increased after treatment with any of the following:
Ovarian late effects and other health related problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by ovarian late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following test.
The risk of infertility increases after treatment with the following:
Late effects on pregnancy include increased risk of the following:
Some studies have not shown an increased risk of late effects on pregnancy.
The following methods may be used so that childhood cancer survivors can have children:
The children of childhood cancer survivors do not appear to have an increased risk of birth defects, genetic disease, or cancer.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause lung late effects:
The risk of health problems that affect the lungs increases after treatment with the following:
The risk of lung late effects is greater in childhood cancer survivors who are treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy. The risk is also increased in survivors who have a history of the following:
Lung late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by lung late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
Lung late effects in childhood cancer survivors may occur slowly over time or there may be no symptoms. Sometimes lung damage can be detected only by imaging or pulmonary function testing. Lung late effects may improve over time.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of lung late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Childhood cancer survivors with lung late effects should take care to protect their health, including:
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause hearing late effects:
The risk of hearing loss is increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with the following:
The risk of hearing loss is greater in childhood cancer survivors who were young at the time of treatment (the younger the child, the greater the risk), were treated for a brain tumor, or received radiation therapy to the brain and chemotherapy at the same time.
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by hearing late effects or by other conditions:
Hearing loss may occur during treatment, soon after treatment ends, or several months or years after treatment ends and worsen over time. Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of hearing late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause eye and vision late effects:
The risk of eye problems or vision loss may be increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with any of the following:
Eye late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by eye and vision late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of eye and vision late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause kidney late effects:
The risk of health problems that affect the kidney increases after treatment with the following:
The risk of kidney late effects is greater in childhood cancer survivors who are treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy.
The following may also increase the risk of kidney late effects:
Kidney late effects or related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by kidney late effects or by other conditions:
Sometimes there are no signs or symptoms in the early stages. Signs or symptoms may appear as damage to the kidney continues over time. Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of kidney late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
Childhood cancer survivors who had all or part of their kidney removed should talk to their doctor about the following:
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause bladder late effects:
The risk of health problems that affect the bladder increases after treatment with the following:
Bladder late effects and related health problems include the following:
These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by bladder late effects or by other conditions:
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
In addition to asking about your child’s personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your child’s doctor may perform the following tests and procedures.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of bladder late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.
For more information about late effects of treatment for childhood cancer, see the following:
For more childhood cancer information and other general cancer resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:
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PDQ® Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/childhood-cancers/late-effects-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389365]
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